A hydrogen infrastructure is the infrastructure of points of hydrogen production, truck and pipeline transport, and hydrogen stations for the distribution and sale of hydrogen fuel,
Hydrogen stations which are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline get supply via compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production. Pipelines are the cheapest way to move hydrogen over long distances but must be designed to withstand the leakage and steel embrittlement caused by the hydrogen molecule. Hydrogen gas piping is routine in large oil-refineries, because hydrogen is used to Hydrocracking fuels from crude oil. The IEA recommends existing industrial ports be used for production and natural gas pipelines for transport, international co-operation and shipping.
South Korea and Japan,
Network
Hydrogen highways and stations
A hydrogen highway is a chain of
hydrogen-equipped
Hydrogen station and other infrastructure along a
road or
highway which allow
to travel.
Hydrogen stations that are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline get deliveries of via compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production. Governments have supported some initiatives to expand hydrogen fuel infrastructure in the US state of California, in some member states of the European Union, Japan and elsewhere.
Hydrogen pipeline transport
Hydrogen pipeline transport may be used to connect the point of hydrogen production or delivery of hydrogen with the point of demand.
[ DOE Hydrogen Pipeline Working Group Workshop] According to a 2024 research report, the United States had 1,600 miles (2,570 kilometers) of hydrogen pipelines, and the global total stood at 2,800 miles (4,500 kilometers).
The World Economic Forum, in December 2023, however, estimated that Europe had approximately 1,600 kilometers of hydrogen pipelines.
Hydrogen embrittlement (a reduction in the ductility of a metal due to absorbed hydrogen) occurs primarily with 'diffusible' hydrogen, i.e. atoms or ions. Hydrogen gas, however, is molecular (H2), and there is a significant energy barrier to splitting it into atoms.
Hydrogen production plants
98% of hydrogen production uses the
steam reforming method.
[ Methods such as electrolysis of water are also used.]
Hydrogen pipeline transport
Hydrogen may be transported through pipes.
History
Economics
Hydrogen pipeline transport is sometimes used to transport hydrogen from the point of production or delivery to the point of demand. Although hydrogen pipeline transport is technologically mature,[ 2005 DOE Hydrogen Pipeline Working Group Workshop ][ Every 50 to 100 miles ]
Piping
For process metal piping at pressures up to , high-purity stainless steel piping with a maximum hardness of 80 Rockwell scale is preferred.[ Idaho national Engineering Laboratory Recommendations for Piping for Gaseous Hydrogen Accessed 2010-10-13] This is because higher hardnesses are associated with lower fracture toughness so stronger, higher hardness steel is less safe.
Composite pipes are assessed like:
Fiber-Reinforced Polymer pipelines (or FRP pipeline) and reinforced thermoplastic pipes are researched.
Carrying hydrogen in steel pipelines (grades: API5L-X42 and X52; up to 1,000psi/7,000kPa, constant pressure/low pressure cycling) does not lead to hydrogen embrittlement.
Infrastructure
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2024: USA – of low pressure hydrogen pipelines
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2024: Europe – of low pressure hydrogen pipelines.
Hydrogen highway
A hydrogen highway is a chain of hydrogen-equipped public Hydrogen station, along a road or highway, that allows hydrogen powered cars to travel.[Al-Ahmed, Amir, Safdar Hossain, Bello Mukhtar et al. "Hydrogen highway: An overview", IEEE.org, December 2010] William Clay Ford Jr. has stated that infrastructure is one of three factors (also including costs and manufacturability in high volumes) that hold back the marketability of fuel cell cars.
Supply issues, cost and pollution
Hydrogen fueling stations generally receive deliveries of hydrogen by tanker truck from hydrogen suppliers.[ An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fueling stations.][Woodrow, Melanie. "Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion", ABC news, June 3, 2019] A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build.
As of 2019, 98% of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming, which emits carbon dioxide.[ "Realising the hydrogen economy" , Power Technology, October 11, 2019] The bulk of hydrogen is also transported in trucks, so pollution is emitted in its transportation.[ "Transportable Hydrogen Dispensing" , Protium.aero, May 2, 2016]
Hydrogen station
A hydrogen station is a storage or filling station for hydrogen fuel.
Delivery methods
Hydrogen fueling stations can be divided into off-site stations, where hydrogen is delivered by truck or pipeline, and on-site stations that produce and compress hydrogen for the vehicles.[ "Transportable Hydrogen Dispensing" , Protium.aero, May 2, 2016]
Types of recharging stations
Home hydrogen fueling station
Home hydrogen fueling stations have been offered for purchase.[ Hydrogenics HomeFueler as a home hydrogen fueling station; Simple.fuel as a home hydrogen fueling station; Ivys Energy Solutions simple.fuel; and Home hydrogen fueling station term] A model that could produce 12 kilograms of hydrogen per day sold for $325,000 in 2019.[ "SHFA Model 300", Millennium Reign Energy, accessed April 26, 2023]
Solar powered water electrolysing hydrogen home stations are composed of , power converter, water purifier, electrolyzer, piping, hydrogen purifier,[See, for example, Lincoln Composites Tuffshell tanks , as recommended by Roy McAlister in the "Hydrogen Car and Multi Fuel Engine" DVD] and a hydrogen outlet.
Disadvantages
Volatility
Hydrogen fuel is hazardous because of its low ignition energy, high combustion energy, and because it easily leaks from tanks.
Supply
Hydrogen fuelling stations generally receive deliveries by truck from hydrogen suppliers. An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fuelling stations due to an interruption of the supply of hydrogen.[Woodrow, Melanie. "Bay Area experiences hydrogen shortage after explosion", ABC news, June 3, 2019]
Costs
There are far fewer Hydrogen filling stations than gasoline fuel stations, which in the US alone numbered 168,000 in 2004.[Ruedig, Allison. "Guide to Commercial EV Charging Station Cost & Installation", Greenlancer, July 3, 2025]
Freezing of the nozzle
During refueling, the flow of cold hydrogen can cause frost to form on the dispenser nozzle, sometimes leading to the nozzle becoming frozen to the vehicle being refueled.
Locations
H2stations.org tracks global hydrogen filling stations and publishes statistics and a map. They count a total of 980 hydrogen fuelling stations in operation worldwide (including bus stations and non-retail stations) as of the end of 2024.[ "Statistics: Hydrogen Infrastructure". Retrieved July 13, 2025]
Asia
In 2019, there were 178 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation.[ "Statistics: Hydrogen Infrastructure". Retrieved July 13, 2025]
, there were 167 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation in Japan.
In 2019, there were 33 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation in South Korea.[Barnard, Michael. "Hydrogen Refueling Station Closures in Multiple Countries More Painful News for Hydrogen Proponents", CleanTechnica, February 8, 2024] 41 out of the 159 hydrogen stations in the country were listed as open, and some of these were rationing supplies of hydrogen.[Martin, Polly. "Three quarters of hydrogen refuelling stations in South Korea closed amid H2 supply crash", Hydrogen Insight, November 23, 2023]
Europe
In 2019, there were 177 stations in Europe.[
]
there were 105 hydrogen fuel stations in Germany,[[https://hydrogen-central.com/everfuel-decided-restructure-hydrogen-station-network-due-current-immature-hydrogen-mobility-market-and-technology-closing-refuelling-stations "Everfuel Decided to Restructure the Hydrogen Station Network Due to Current Immature Hydrogen Mobility Market and Technology, Closing Refuelling Stations"], ''Hydrogen Central'', September 15, 2023][Martin, Polly. [https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/hydrogen-vehicles-in-denmark-left-without-fuel-as-all-commercial-refuelling-stations-shuttered/2-1-1519914 "Hydrogen vehicles in Denmark left without fuel as all commercial refuelling stations shuttered"], ''Hydrogen Insight'', 20 September 2023]
there were 2 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Norway, both in the Oslo area.[Tisheva, Plamena. [https://renewablesnow.com/news/everfuel-sets-out-plan-for-hydrogen-stations-in-southern-norway-735225 "Everfuel sets out plan for hydrogen stations in southern Norway"], RenewablesNow, March 22, 2021] Since the explosion at the hydrogen filling station in [[Sandvika]] in June 2019, the sale of hydrogen cars in Norway has halted.[Kane, Mark. [https://insideevs.com/news/354223/hydrogen-fueling-station-explodes "Hydrogen Fueling Station Explodes: Toyota & Hyundai Halt Fuel Cell Car Sales"], Inside EVs, June 11, 2019, accessed August 5, 2021] In 2023, Everfuel announced the closure of its two public hydrogen stations in Norway and cancelled the opening of a third.[ In 2024 Shell discontinued its hydrogen fuel projects in Norway.][Kimani, Alex. [https://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/Shell-Abandons-Norways-Hydrogen-Projects-Due-To-Lack-Of-Demand.html "Shell Abandons Norway’s Hydrogen Projects Due to Lack of Demand"], Oil Price, September 23, 2024]
there were 11 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in the United Kingdom,[[https://innovationorigins.com/en/first-shell-now-motive-hydrogen-fuel-station-closures-continue-in-the-uk "First Shell, now Motive, hydrogen fuel station closures continue in the UK"], ''Innovation Origins'', 4 May 2023] In 2022, Shell closed its three hydrogen stations in the UK,[Collins, Leigh. [https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/transport/exclusive-shell-has-quietly-closed-down-all-its-hydrogen-filling-stations-in-the-uk/2-1-1335049 "Shell has quietly closed down all its hydrogen filling stations in the UK"], ''Hydrogen Insight'', 17 October 2022]
North America
Canada
As of May 2025, there were 7 fueling stations in Canada, 6 of which were open to the public:
-
British Columbia: Five stations are in the Greater Vancouver Area and Vancouver Island, with one station in Kelowna.
[ All are operated by HTEC (co-branded with Esso).]
-
Ontario: One station in Mississauga is operated by Hydrogenics. The station is only available to certain commercial customers.
-
Quebec: The one station in Quebec City is operated by Harnois Énergies (co-branded with Esso).
[
]
United States
, there were 51 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 49 of which were located in California, with one in Hawaii[ Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State, Alternative Fuels Data Center, accessed July 4, 2024.] and one in Washington.[Day, Lewin. "Washington Is Getting Hydrogen Fuel and It’s Nine Times Cheaper Than California’s", The Autopian, June 27, 2025]
-
California: there were 49 retail stations.
[Begert, Blanca. "Is this the end of the hydrogen highway?", Politico, August 15, 2023] In 2023, Shell closed its hydrogen stations in the state and discontinued plans to build further stations.[Dokso, Anela. "Shell Abandons California Hydrogen Stations", Energy News, September 19, 2023; and Collins, Leigh. "Shell scraps plan to build 48 new hydrogen filling stations in California, for which it had been awarded $40.6m grant", Hydrogen Insight, 18 September 2023] In 2024 it was reported that "a majority of the hydrogen stations in Southern California are offline or operating with reduced hours" due to hydrogen shortages and unreliable station performance.[Hogan, Mack. "Shell Is Immediately Closing all of Its California Hydrogen Stations", Inside EVs, February 9, 2024]
-
Hawaii has one hydrogen station in Honolulu.
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Michigan: In 2000, the Ford Motor Company and Air Products & Chemicals opened the first hydrogen station in North America in Dearborn, MI.
-
Texas: There is one non-retail station in Austin, Texas.
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Washington: There is one public hydrogen station, in East Wenatchee, selling hydrogen at $4 per kilogram, compared with California's prevailing 2025 price of $36 per kilogram.
[
]
Oceania
In 2021, the first Australian publicly available hydrogen fuel station opened in Canberra, operated by ActewAGL.
Hydrogen tank
A hydrogen tank (other names- cartridge or canister) is used for hydrogen storage.[ International hydrogen fuel and pressure vessel forum 2010 ][ R&D of large stationary hydrogen/CNG/HCNG storage vessels][ CNG & Hydrogen tank safety, R&D, and testing] The first type IV hydrogen tanks for compressed hydrogen at were demonstrated in 2001, the first fuel cell vehicles on the road with type IV tanks were the Toyota FCHV, Mercedes-Benz F-Cell and the GM HydroGen4.
Low-pressure tanks
Various applications have allowed the development of different H2 storage scenarios. The Hy-Can consortium[ Hycan ] introduced a one liter, format. Horizon Fuel Cells has sold a refillable metal hydride form factor for consumer use.[ Horizon HydroStik]
Type I
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Metal tank (steel/aluminum)
-
Approximate maximum pressures: aluminum , steel .
Type II
Type III
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Tanks made from composite material, fiberglass/aramid or carbon fiber with a metal liner (aluminum or steel).
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Approximate maximum pressures: aluminum/glass , aluminum/aramid , aluminium/carbon .
Type IV
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Composite tanks such of carbon fiber with a polymer liner (thermoplastic). See rotational molding and fibre-reinforced plastic.
-
Approximate maximum pressure: .
Type V
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All-composite, linerless tank. Composites Technology Development (Colorado, USA) built a prototype tank for a satellite application in 2010 although it had an operating pressure of only 200 psi and was used to store argon.
-
Approximate maximum pressure: .
Tank testing and safety considerations
In accordance with ISO/TS 15869 (revised):
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Burst test: the pressure at which the tank bursts, typically more than 2× the working pressure.
-
Proof pressure: the pressure at which the test will be executed, typically above the working pressure.
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Leak test or permeation test,
[ Modeling of dispersion following hydrogen permeation for safety engineering and risk assessment ] in NmL/hr/L (Normal liter of H2/time in hr/volume of the tank.)
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Fatigue testing, typically several thousand cycles of charging/emptying.
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Bonfire test where the tank is exposed to an open fire.
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Bullet test where live ammunition is fired at the tank.
This specification was replaced by ISO 13985:2006 and only applies to liquid hydrogen tanks.
Actual Standard EC 79/2009
Metal hydride storage tank
Magnesium hydride
Using magnesium[ CNRS Institut Neel H2 Storage] for hydrogen storage, a safe but weighty reversible storage technology. Typically the pressure requirement is limited to . The charging process generates heat, whereas the discharge process will require some heat to release the H2 contained in the storage material. To activate these types of hydrides, at the current state of development you need to reach approximately .
Another material is sodium aluminium hydride.
See also
Sources
External links
